The Glass Ceiling: A Critical Analysis-- Written December 2015
The Glass Ceiling: Myth or Reality?
‘The glass ceiling’. One of the most
debated subjects in the history of the United States, this phrase refers to the
often invisible barrier encountered by women and other minorities in their
climb towards success. “The glass ceiling is generally viewed as a set of
impediments and/or barriers to career advancement for women and people of
color,” says a multi-authored chapter in the 2014 issue of New Directions for Institutional Research (p.39). “It is most
commonly used,” the authors of the Introduction to The Glass Ceiling in the 21st Century comment, “to refer
to the phenomenon whereby men dominate the upper echelons of management” (p.
5). This “phenomenon,” as they call it, is argued using three main platforms: the
gender-wage differential, the percentage of female fortune 500 executives, and
the ability of a woman to balance her family life and her career. Though the
glass ceiling does exist, it has drastically changed since the term was first
coined. The success of a woman no longer depends entirely on bias, but also on
her personal choices and priorities—and whether or not she is prepared to break
her own glass.
Susan M. Kochanowski opens her article, entitled “Women in
Leadership: Persistent Problems or Progress?” with this statement: “In the
world of work, there is a scarcity of women in top leadership” (par. 1). She
describes the progress women have made in the workplace, but points out that
despite this progress, women are still in the minority. Though 40% of the
managerial positions in the United States are held by women, the percentage of
women holding executive positions in Fortune 500 companies sits at a mere
15.7%. In comparison to where women began in the battle for equality, 15.7% is
a miracle—in 1997, a female doorwoman at a hotel was a noteworthy phenomenon.
In fact, Sheila Connors was the first one, and her picture appeared in the
paper—shortly followed by an appeal to the media to keep her job when “one top
hotel official began worrying about how guests might react to the sight of a
woman summoning taxis and hefting luggage” (Weiss, p. 59). Despite the
progress, however, 15.7% remains an alarmingly inconsequential number for those
climbing towards the success that lies beyond the Glass Ceiling.
There are multiple examples, also, of
the wage gap between male and female employees in any given company. In “Are We
There Yet?”, the three authors
address the wage gap and give straightforward statistics, telling us that
though it is not the same threat it was in history, it still affects women
today. A woman and a man doing the exact same work may earn different wages,
independent of the quality of their work and their home life. “Motherhood has
long been the explanation for the persistent pay gap,” write the three
journalists, “yet… women who haven’t had children still make 77 cents on the
male dollar.” The ratio of female cents to the male dollar has changed over
time and from company to company, however, there is still discrepancy. That 77
cents quickly accumulates negative numbers; by the end of the year, it’s a
substantial difference. 77 cents to a dollar means 77 dollars to one hundred,
and $770 to one thousand—a substantial difference that negatively affects a
great deal of families in the US.
It’s not only the US that is being
affected, either. Other countries are debating the issue as well—using data
from 60 different countries, the Asian
Economic Journal tackles the question of the gender-wage gap, dividing
their analysis into four sections: The origin of gender-wage differentials, the
conceptual framework of the issue, a description of the available data, and a
discussion of the results of this research. They divide the discrimination into
two categories: glass ceilings and sticky floors. Glass ceilings refer to the
difficulty arising, not in gaining employment, but in reaching the top of the
corporate ladder, while sticky floors refer to an inability to even begin the
climb. Their eventual analysis is this: “In Asian countries we typically see
sticky floors, while in… the USA (at least for the private sector,) glass
ceilings are present” (Fang and Sakellario, p. 234). The United States wage gap, then, is
at least partially discriminatory towards women—or at least provides a
substantial challenge for them in reaching leadership positions.
However, the glass ceiling is not
made up entirely of prejudice. On her blog, The
Working Mother, Stacey Hawley reminds us that many of the statistics that
concern people are caused by the unwillingness of women to give up their dreams
of motherhood and the responsibilities and comforts associated with those
dreams. Marty Nemko’s comments support this claim, stating, “In the privacy of
my office, many capable, highly educated women… admit that what they’d really
like is to work part-time if at all… so they can have ample time for home,
family, friends, etc.” (par. 10). Nemko continues, “If she wants a moderate
workweek… she cannot fair-mindedly aspire to the boardroom.”
An additional question a number of
women find themselves asking is, why do women earn such a markedly lower wage
than their male counterparts? Nemko addresses this question, stating, “A key
reason men earn more than women is number of hours worked” (par. 7). Nemko
discusses the substantial differences between the work ethics of differing
genders. Men in general are simply more willing to work more hours. He refers
to a study done by Dr. Warren Farrell, in which Farrell interviewed “a number
of senior executive women”. In reference to these interviews, Nemko says, “Each
one stated that crucial to their success was their willingness to work longer
than most women are” (par. 7) In the following paragraphs, he describes the
mentality of a great many women in relation to work: they aren’t comfortable
working long hours, and wish to have time to stay home and pursue other
hobbies. He goes on to explain how all the issues in question tie in to this
key theme: Men have more time for their careers than women, and a woman wishing
to be successful will have to match that.
In her book The Glass Ceiling: A Look at Women in the Workforce, Ann Weiss
gives many substantial examples of women throughout history and their battles
with the glass ceiling. As mentioned, Sheila Connors was the first female
‘bellboy’, but she was not the only one—in 1982, Brenda Berkman went to court
for her right to become a firefighter. In 1981, Jane Perlov joined the New York
City police department, becoming a chief detective in 1997. Each of these women
fought for her right to hold these positions, and each of these women hit a
barrier… the glass ceiling.
This barrier is seen throughout the
history of women’s careers. The authors of “Are We There Yet?” give some
examples from their company, a magazine called Newsweek. Women in the company began as ‘dollies’—coffee carriers
and message deliverers—before they started getting restless in 1969. It was
women like them who began the fight for women’s rights, and yet, even in 2009,
the year prior to the writing of this article, only six of Newsweek’s cover stories were written by women. “There’s no denying
that we’re enjoying many of the spoils of those women’s victories,” the women
admit, “…we have… a law that promises equal pay for equal work. Yet the fact
that such a law is necessary makes the point: equality is still a myth” (par.
15).
The claim that equality is a myth is
a bold one; however, it is supported by a number of data groups. In the
aforementioned New Directions article,
the authors explore multiple types of cross-sectional data about the glass ceiling.
Analyzing a number of sources, they find that, though the data available is
insufficient to provide proof of a glass ceiling, it lends itself strongly to
the idea. In their concluding statement, they say: “We have summarized the
findings here… as examples of how analysis in causal-comparative research
tradition can ‘examine relationships and make predictions in the presence of
nonmanipulated categorical variables’” (Jackson, O’Callaghan, Adserias, p. 44).
Statistics are limited in this issue more so than others, but the personal
experience of a great many minorities provides substantial evidence to support
the glass ceiling.
Despite widespread evidence that
women in the workforce continue to experience inequality, Ben Shapiro argues
that the glass ceiling is largely a myth. Referring to the US government’s
unexplainable pay gap, he says, “If I could hire a fully
qualified woman to do the same work as a man for 93 cents on the dollar, why
wouldn’t I do that?” (par.10). His argument is valid: Why wouldn’t one take the least expensive route?
It would make sense, in a business mindset, to hire an equally qualified worker
for a cheaper pay; however, the simple fact that women are paid 93 cents to the
dollar challenges his position and raises the question: If that is so, why are
women still statistically in the minority?
Shapiro also mentions a number of
female CEO’s in fortune 500 companies, insinuating that their places as CEO
prove that the glass ceiling has been shattered. However, he fails to bring up
the number of CEO’s who are not female—after
all, there are five hundred companies
on the list, not just eight—and that’s the number of companies he mentions. If
the glass ceiling were a myth and the hiring of women depended on such basic
statistics as the difference in expense, it follows that women would be hired
in at least equal numbers as men, yet we still don’t see that happening.
Shapiro isn’t the only one who
believes the glass ceiling is a myth. Kavita Nair, PhD, says that in her
experience, the glass ceiling has never made an appearance. “I haven’t encountered it.” She said in an
interview, “If it exists, I am sure it has a great view of the horizon” (“India
Inc.’s Rising Women Leaders”). But Nair is only one woman. Though her
experience was fairly painless according to her statement, countless other
women have experienced the opposite. Statistics alone provide evidence that
Nair is in the minority; the additional evidence from countless personal
stories make it painfully evident. Some examples are given in Ann Weiss’s book,
The Glass Ceiling: A Look at Women in the
Workforce. Weiss discusses stories
of success, of failure, of compromise…but no matter the story, they all contain
a common theme: difficulty.
Additionally, Veerle Draulans gives
some insight on thicknesses of the glass ceiling; some areas and companies’
glass ceilings are very thin, while others are nearly impenetrable (p. 70-71).
This gives some insight into the differences in experience from woman to woman,
supporting the idea that different women approach different barriers. Each
barrier exists—the simple explanation is that they exist differently from
situation to situation, woman to woman.
The glass ceiling is a difficult
barrier to overcome for a great many people. Though many people do not
experience it, statistics, studies and stories remind us that the gender-wage
gap, percentages of female CEO’s, and the effect motherhood has on career are
real and oppressive. The great majority of women are still faced with a
choice—be a mother and homemaker, or have a hard-earned, successful career. The
ceiling is thinner now in many places, but not yet shattered; and it is up to individuals
to shatter it.
Works Cited
Barreto,
Manuela, Michelle K. Ryan, Michael T. Schmitt. Introduction. The Glass Ceiling in the 21st
Century: Understanding Barriers to Gender Equality. Washington,
DC, US: American
Psychological Association, 2009. 3-18. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
Bennett, Jessica, Jesse Ellison, and Sarah Ball. “Are We There Yet?” Practical Argument: A Text and Anthology. Ed.
Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. Boston/New York: Bedford/St.
Martin’s, 2014, 2011. 716-723. Print.
Draulans,
Veerle. “The Glass Ceiling: Reality or Myth? A Gender Analysis of Leadership.” Ethical Perspectives 10.1 (2003):
66-77. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
Fang, Zheng, Chris Sakellario. “Glass Ceilings and Sticky Floors:
Evidence from Southeast Asia and an International Update”. Asian Economic Journal 29.3 (2013): 215-232. Web. 16 Nov. 2015
Hawley, Stacey, “The Glass Ceiling:
Myth or Reality?” The Working Mother 2 Aug. 2012. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
Jackson, Jerlando F. L., Elizabeth M. O’Callaghan,
Ryan P. Adserias. “Approximating Glass Ceiling Effects Using Cross-Sectional Data.” New Directions for Institutional Research 2013.159 (2014): 37-47. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Web. 16 Nov.
2015.
Kochanowski, Susan M. “Women in Leadership: Persistent Problems or
Progress?” Practical Argument: A Text and
Anthology. Ed. Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. Boston/New York:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014, 2011. 716-723. Print.
Nemko, Marty. “The Real Reason So Few Women Are in the Boardroom.”
Practical Argument: A Text and Anthology. Ed. Laurie G. Kirszner and
Stephen R. Mandell. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014, 2011. 716-723.
Print.
Shapiro, Ben.
“The Glass Ceiling Myth: It Isn’t Sexism, It’s Reality—For the Most Part.” FrontPageMag.com. Front Page
Magazine, 5 Feb. 2012. Web. November 16, 2015.
Weiss, Ann E.
The Glass Ceiling: A Look at Women in the
Workforce. Brookfield, Conn: Lerner Publishing Group, 1999. web.b.ebscohost.com. Web.
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